Treaty of Ganghwa

The Treaty of Ganghwa, also known in Japan as Korea-Japanese Treaty of Amity, signed on February 27, 1876, was written by Kuroda Kiyotaka, Governor of Hokkaidō. Kuroda's intention was to open up Korea to Japanese trade. Japan sought to gain Korean's trust by allying with Korea to end Korea's status as a tributary state of China. The treaty describes Korea as an independent state, equal in status to Japan. However, the terms of the treaty were far from equal. The Treaty granted Japanese many rights that were not granted to Korea on an equal basis. The Treaty of Ganghwa was Korea's first formal step toward opening foreign relations after centuries of a strong policy of isolation. Ultimately, it later proved to be the first step towards Korea's submission to Japanese rule some three decades later.

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For a number of centuries, Korea had enjoyed a measure of security supported by its relationship of suzerainty with China. China controlled Korea from a distance, receiving annual payments of tribute in return for helping maintain Korean's safety, while control of the country essentially remained in Korea's hands. China did not, for example, station troops in Korea to keep an eye on things. The relationship consisted primarily of the annual tribute payments, and the Chinese court exerting its opinion on matters of state in a very civilized manner.

After the Industrial Revolution in eighteenth century, European nations began to colonize many other weaker nations in Africa and Asia, in keeping with the political ideology called Imperialism. Almost all of Africa was colonized by European Powers; most of Central, South, and Southeast Asia including India was taken over by various European nations. East Asia also was invaded by foreign powers, beginning with the Opium Wars in China by Britain and other foreign powers; China's vast, magnificent empire was reduced to a half-colonized territory. Meanwhile, the American Asiatic Squadron under the leadership of Matthew C. Perry forced Japan to open its ports to the western world in 1854.

Seeing how the western powers were gaining control of China, and not wishing to be taken under control by the western powers, Korea decided to sign a treaty with Japan, feeling that Japan would be a safer partner than the Europeans or the Americans. However, at the same time, humiliated by unequal treaties signed with European nations and shamed by their failure to resist Admiral Perry's inroads, Japan responded by embarking on a rapid transformation, successfully turning itself from a comparatively medieval society into a modern industrialized state in a short period of time. Japan's next step was to imitate the techniques that the western powers had used in relation to her, and exert the same kind of control over Korea, beginning with the Treaty of Ganghwa.

Ganghwa Incident

In the late Joseon period in Korea, Daewongun maintained a strong closed door policy to European powers. During the period when Daewongun held power, France and United States had made several unsuccessful attempts to begin commerce with the Joseon Dynasty. When Gojong and Queen Min took over rule of the Joseon nation from Daewongun, advisors in the court felt it was time to open the country to relations with the outside world. While there was political instability, Japan developed a plan to open and exert influence on Korea before a European power could. In 1875, their plan was put into action: the Unyo, a small Japanese warship under the command of Inoue Yoshika, was dispatched to survey coastal waters without Korean permission.

On September 20, the ship reached Ganghwa Island, which had been a site of violent confrontations between Korean forces and foreign forces in the previous decade. In 1866, the island was briefly occupied by the French, and also in 1871 subject to American intervention. The memories of those confrontations were very fresh, and there was little question that the Korean garrison would shoot at any approaching foreign ship. Nonetheless, Commander Inoue ordered a small boat launched—allegedly in search of drinkable water. The Korean forts opened fire. The Unyo brought its superior firepower to bear and silenced the Korean guns. Then it attacked another Korean port and withdrew back to Japan

Kuroda Mission

The following year saw a Japanese fleet led by Special Envoy Kuroda Kiyotaka coming over to Korea, demanding an apology from Joseon government and demanded that Korea sign the Treaty of Ganghwa, a treaty of commerce between the two nations. The Korean government decided to accept the demand, in hope of importing some technologies to defend the country from the any future invasions of European powers.

The treaty became the first unequal treaty signed by Korea; it gave extraterritorial rights to Japanese citizens in Korea, the Korean government was to open 3 ports to Japanese and foreign trade, specifically Busan, Incheon and Wonsan and was to establish its independence in foreign relations from China (although it still paid tribute to China).

Aftermath of the Treaty of Ganghwa

Following the signing of the Treaty of Ganghwa, between Japan and Korea, China was worried that Japan would gain too much control over Korea, so China encouraged Korea to sign similar treaties with the United States (1882), Great Britain (1883), Germany (1883), Italy (1884), France (1886), Austria-Hungary (1892), Belgium (1901), and Denmark (1902). A little while later, Japan demanded Korea sign a treaty turning over control of Korea's communications to Japan (1905), and later the same year, another treaty put control of Korea's foreign relations under Japanese control. In 1907, the Japanese demanded that Emperor Gojong step down from the throne in favor of his son, Sunjong. Finally, in 1910, Korea signed contract of Annexation by Japan, and Japan declared that the Korean Empire was dissolved and that Korea was under Japanese rule.

Timeline of Events Surrounding the Treaty of Ganghwa

• 1853 American Commodore Perry sailed into Uraga Harbor in Japan
• 1854 Under threat of force, Japan signed the Convention of Kanagawa with the United States
• 1858 Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Japan and the United States, and unequal treaty that favored the United States (followed by similar treaties between Japan and the Russians, French and British)
• 1866 General Sherman incident, in which an American ship sailed without permission into Korean waters, and was attacked and burned
• 1866 (October) French Campaign against Korea in retaliation for the killing of their Catholic missionaries in Korea
• 1868 Letter to Korea announcing Japan's new government was rejected by Korea because it seemed impolite toward China
• 1871 United States Korean Expedition, ostensibly investigating the General Sherman Incident, but really trying to make inroads to start trading relations
• 1875 Ganghwa Island Incident, in which a Japanese approached the Korean coast without permission, were attacked, and then demanded an apology
• 1876 Treaty of Amity, Friendship, Commerce and Navigation with Japan - Treaty of Ganghwa
• 1882 (June) Military Mutiny of Korean soldiers, threatening Japanese officials
• 1882 (October) Treaty of Jemulpo with Japan, with stronger stipulations than the Treaty of Ganghwa, demanded by Japan in reaction to the June Mutiny,
• 1882 Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the United States (this treaty and the following ones were encouraged by China)
• 1883 Treaty of Friendship and Commerce with Great Britain
• 1883 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation with Germany
• 1884 Treaty of Friendship and Commerce with Italy
• 1886 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navitation with France
• 1892 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation with Austria-Hungary
• 1897 Creation of the Empire of Korea, declaring Korea on equal footing with China
• 1899 Commercial Treaty with China
• 1901 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation with Belgium
• 1902 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navitation with Denmark
• 1904 Protocol agreement giving Japan more control in Korea
• 1905 (April) Agreement regarding the Communication Services with Japan
• 1905 (November) Agreement by which Japan assumed charge of the Foreign Relations of Korea
• 1907 Agreement relating to the Internal Administration of Korea
• 1910 Treaty of Annexation of Korea by Japan

 sources: 

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Treaty_of_Ganghwa

McDougall, Walter A. 1993. Let the sea make a noise—: a history of the North Pacific from Magellan to MacArthur. New York, NY: Basic Books. ISBN 9780465051526.

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Donghak Peasant Revolution

The Donghak Peasant Revolution, also known as the Donghak Peasant Movement, was an anti-government, anti-feudal and anti-foreign uprising in 1894 in southern Korea which was the catalyst for the First Sino-Japanese War.

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The uprising started in Gobu during February 1894, with the peasant class protesting against the political corruption of local government officials. The revolution was named after Donghak, a Korean religion stressing "the equality of all human beings". The Joseon government forces failed in their attempt to suppress the revolt, with initial skirmishes giving way to major battles. Korean court asked Qing China for military assistance to "quell the domestic unrest." When Japanese officials discovered three thousand Chinese troops had disembarked near Seoul in June, Japan's policy makers met to decide how to respond to China's violation of the Convention by "dispatching forces without informing Tokyo.”

Even before foreign intervention and the opening of Korea to the world, the peasants of the Korean Peninsula had become disillusioned with the rule of the upper yangban classes. During the 19th century, drought and floods alternately struck the rice fields and farms of Korea and caused great famines. Making matters worse, the Joseon rulers increased taxes on farm crops and imposed more unpaid labor on the starving peasants. Anti-government and anti-landlord sentiment boiled over into violent uprisings.

In 1812 Hong Gyeong-nae led the peasants of Gasan in the northern part of Korea into an armed rebellion and occupied the region for several months. An army was sent to quell the rebellion and the revolt was only put down after a savage scorched-earth campaign. All over Korea, all the way to Jeju Island, peasants continued to defy the king in Seoul, the local nobility and wealthy landlords.

In 1862 half a century after the peasant rebellion led by Hong Gyeong-nae was put down, a group of farmers in Jinju, Gyeongs  , province rose up against their oppressive provincial officials and the wealthy landowners. This uprising was the result of the exploitation of destitute farmers by the local ruler.

The rebels killed local government officials and set fire to government buildings. In order to appease the rebels, the government hastily revised the land, military and grain lending systems. It was an ineffectual attempt at reform, as many yangban in the central government were themselves deeply involved in such corruption.

The revolt in Jinju triggered peasant uprisings elsewhere all over Korea; groups of farmers rose up with arms and attacked government offices in principal towns. Many government officials were executed.

The uprisings were generally crushed by government troops. In 1862 the peasants of San-nam and surrounding villages took up arms against the elite, but were brutally butchered by troops. In subsequent years, peasants rose up in small groups all across Korea until 1892.

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The birth of the Donghak religion
Choe Je-u established the ideology of Donghak (Eastern Learning) in April 1860 with the intention of helping farmers suffering from poverty, unrest and of restoring political and social stability.

The Donghak ideology was a mixture of elements from Korean Confucianism, Buddhism and shamanism, modern humanistic, class-struggle ideas that today may be considered Marxist. It resembled a religion as well as a political ideology. A rhetoric of exclusionism (from foreign influences) and an early form of nationalism were also incorporated.

Donghak themes were set to music so that illiterate farmers could understand and accept them more readily, and systematized as a message of salvation to farmers in distress. His ideas rapidly gained acceptance among the peasantry.

Choe, as well as many Koreans, was also alarmed by the intrusion of Christianity and the Anglo-French occupation of Beijing during the Second Opium War. He believed that the best way to counter foreign influence in Korea was to introduce democratic and human rights reforms internally.

Nationalism and social reform struck a chord among the peasant guerrillas, and Donghak spread all across Korea. Progressive revolutionaries organized the peasants into a cohesive structure. Donghak was organized into 'Jeob' and 'Po'. A 'Jeobju' administered a 'Jeob'. For example, Jeon Bongjun, the leader of the revolution, was Jeobju of Gobu. Under a Jeobju was a 'Myeonjeobju'. In large towns (such as Taein or Jeonju) were a 'Great Jeobju', as Kim Kaenam was the Great Jeobju of Taein. Various Jeobs were organized into a 'Po', and a 'Poju' led a Po. The 'Gyoju' led the whole Donghak religion.

The First Revolution

The Donghak Peasant Revolution, or the 1894 Peasant War (Nongmin Jeonjaeng), witnessed poor farmers in large numbers rise up against the landlords and the ruling elite. The peasants demanded land redistribution, tax reduction, democracy and human rights. Taxes were so high that most farmers were forced to sell their ancestral homesteads to rich landowners at bargain prices. Landlords sold rice to the Japanese and sent their children to Japan to study. As a result, the peasant class developed intense anti-Japanese and anti-yangban sentiments. The rebellion's immediate cause was the conduct of Jo Byong-gap (1844–1911), a government official. Jo promised that if the villagers settled in deserted farmlands, he would exempt them from taxes. Jo did not keep that promise. Jo also forced the villagers to build a reservoir called Manseokbo, although there was a reservoir in Gobu. Jo's purpose was to get rich from water taxes.

Progressive-minded yangbans, scholars and nationalists also joined the movement. On January 11, 1894, the rebels, led by Jeon Bong-jun, defeated the government forces at the battle of Go-bu and distributed Jo's properties to the peasants.

The revolution expanded quickly until March 13, 1894. Its army was eventually crushed by government troops led by Yi Yong-tae, who killed and captured peasant guerrillas, burned villages and confiscated the peasants' properties in Go-bu.

The peasant army regrouped and started a new rebellion, as news of the government's actions in Go-bu helped increased support among the peasants. The central figures were Jeon Bong-jun, Kim Gae-nam and Son Hwa-jung.

With new impetus, the peasant army defeated one government garrison after another and closed in on Seoul. The peasants' objectives were institutional land reform, social reform, the overthrow of the Joseon government (or at least the removal of corrupt officials) and the expulsion of foreign influence from Korea.

The peasants' marching orders were the following:

• "Do not kill or take the peasants' properties"
• "Protect the peasants' rights"
• "Drive out the Japanese and Western people and purify our sacred land"
• "March to Seoul and purge the government"

At the beginning of May, the peasant army occupied a palace in Jeonju.

The Korean government asked the Chinese government for assistance in ending the revolt. The Chinese sent troops into Korea, however, their government failed to notify the Japanese in accordance with the Convention of Tientsin. China initially did not wish to go to war with Japan, but Japan viewed the China's action as a threat to its national security and sent its own troops to Korea.

With the presence of some 3,000 Chinese troops, the government authorities proposed a negotiated truce with the rebels. With the end of the rebellion would come increasing tensions between Qing and Japan as neither wanted to evacuate Korea earlier than the other. The resulting tensions would lead to the First Sino-Japanese War.

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The Second Revolution
While hostilities between China and Japan were beginning, a second uprising erupted in the Korean countryside against a new pro-Japanese government established in Seoul.

In late June 1894 the pro-Japanese forces hatched a plan to wipe out the peasant army in co-operation with the Japanese troops stationed in Incheon and Seoul. On October 16 the peasant army moved toward Gongju for the final battle, which was a trap. The Japanese and the pro-Japanese government troops were in fact waiting for them inside.

The Donghak Army was defeated in the Battle of Ugeumchi. The Japanese had cannon and other modern weapons, whereas the Korean peasants were armed only with bows and arrows, spears, swords and some flintlock muskets.

The vigorous battle started on October 22, 1894, and lasted until November 10, 1894. The poorly-armed peasants stormed the well-entrenched Japanese, but they were beaten back and suffered heavy losses. The remnants fled to various bases. The Japanese pursued the army and eventually wiped it out. Jeon Bong-jun, the Donghak commander, was captured in March 1895. The execution of Choe Si-hyeong followed in 1898. 


Aftermath
The rebellion failed, but many grievances of the peasants would later be addressed through the Gabo Reform. The Korean Empire was established in 1897 as a result of the First Sino-Japanese War. Foreign influence would still be a major aspect, with Japan and Russia later competing over exclusive rights in Korea.

In the coming years Korea would fall increasingly under exclusive Japanese influence, and after the Russo-Japanese War, Russian influence would no longer be a factor in Korea. The Korean Empire would in effect (de facto) become a Japanese autonomous protectorate and would later be annexed by Japan in 1910. It was due to this revolution that armies of both China and Japan arrived in Korea, the Japanese did not leave until 1945. It is likely that without this rebellion, Japan would not have had a raison d'etre to enter Korea militarily. As such, some see this rebellion as the first step to the loss of Korean national independence.

Although the revolution failed, it made a significant contribution to Korean modernization that resulted from the peasants' demands for democracy, the expulsion of foreign influence and an end to feudalism. The ideas of the movement lived on in the Cheondogyo religious movement.

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sources:  "Encyclopedia of Korean History>Joseon>Gyoju Shinwon Movement". Retrieved 5 January 2013.

"Encyclopedia of Korean History>Joseon>Jeob.Po". Retrieved 5 January 2013.

James L. McClain, Japan A Modern History, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, 2002, Pg. 297  

Saya San and the Burmese Rebellion

Saya San,  Saya also spelled Hsaya, original name Ya Gyaw   (born Oct. 24, 1876, East Thayet-kan, Shwebo district, Burma [Myanmar]—died Nov. 16, 1931, Tharrawaddy), leader of the anti-British rebellion of 1930–32 in Burma (Myanmar). 

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Saya San was a native of Shwebo, a centre of nationalist-monarchist sentiment in north-central Burma that was the birthplace of the Konbaung (or Alaungpaya) dynasty, which controlled Myanmar from 1752 until the British annexation in 1886. He was a Buddhist monk, physician, and astrologer in Siam (Thailand) and Burma before the rebellion. Saya San joined the extreme nationalist faction of the General Council of Burmese Associations led by U Soe Thein. Saya San organized peasant discontent and proclaimed himself a pretender to the throne who, like Alaungpaya, would unite the people and expel the British invader. He organized his followers into the “Galon Army” (Galon, or Garuḍa, is a fabulous bird of Hindu mythology), and he was proclaimed “king” at Insein, near Rangoon (Yangon), on Oct. 28, 1930.
On the night of December 22/23 the first outbreak occurred in the Tharrawaddy district; the revolt soon spread to other Irrawaddy delta districts. The Galon army rebels, like the Boxers of China, carried charms and tattoos to make themselves invulnerable to British bullets. Armed only with swords and spears, Saya San’s rebels were no match for British troops with machine guns.
As the revolt collapsed, Saya San fled to the Shan Plateau in the east. On Aug. 2, 1931, however, he was captured at Hokho and brought back to Tharrawaddy to be tried by a special tribunal. Despite the efforts of his lawyer, Ba Maw, he was sentenced to death in March 1931 and was hanged at Tharrawaddy jail. The revolt was crushed, but more than 10,000 peasants were killed in the process.

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Although Saya San’s revolt was basically political (it was the last genuine attempt to restore the Burmese monarchy) and possessed strong religious characteristics, its causes were basically economic. The peasants of southern Burma had been dispossessed by Indian moneylenders, were burdened with heavy taxes, and were left penniless when the price of rice dropped in an economic depression. Widespread support for Saya San betrayed the precarious and unpopular position of British rule in Burma.

 

 

Sources: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/520904/Saya-San

Propaganda Movement

  

Filipino expatriates in Europe formed the Propaganda Movement. Photographer in Madrid, Spain in 1890.

       

The Propaganda Movement was a literary and cultural organization formed in 1872 by Filipino émigrés who had settled in Europe. Composed of Filipino liberals exiled in 1872 and students attending Europe's universities, the organization aimed to increase Spanish awareness of the needs of its colony, the Philippines. Its prominent members included José Rizal, author of Noli Me Tangere (novel) and El Filibusterismo, Graciano López Jaena, publisher of La Solidaridad, the movement's principal organ, Mariano Ponce, the organization's secretary and Marcelo H. del Pilar.

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Goals

Specifically, the Propagandists aims were:

1.     Representation of the Philippines in the Cortes Generales, the Spanish parliament;

2.     Secularization of the clergy;

3.     Legalization of Spanish and Filipino equality;

4.     Creation of a public school system independent of the friars;

5.     Abolition of the polo (labor service) and vandala (forced sale of local products to the government);

6.     Guarantee of basic freedoms of speech and association;

7.     Equal opportunity for Filipinos and Spanish to enter government service;

8.     Recognition of the Philippines as a province of Spain;

9.     Secularization of Philippine parishes;

10. Recognition of human rights

sources:

http://rizaldiaries.livejournal.com/2004/05/28/